Pro-healing elastic angiogenic microporous vascular graft

ABSTRACT

Synthetic polymeric vascular grafts that promote endothelial healing and methods of their preparation and use are provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 15/879,301,filed Jan. 24, 2018, which claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/449,984 filed Jan. 24, 2017, each expresslyincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In the United States, 17% of overall national health expenditures arelinked to cardiovascular diseases. $50 billion are spent annually on endstage renal disease (ESRD). Cardiovascular disease and the treatment ofESRD often require synthetic vascular grafts. Almost 1.4 millionvascular grafts are needed every year in the US alone. However, thesuccess rate of current synthetic vascular grafts in many vascular sitesis low. For example, arteriovenous Teflon grafts, the most prevalentgraft in the market for hemodialysis, has a failure rate of 50% in oneyear.

The most common causes of vascular graft failure are thrombosis andintimal hyperplasia (excessive cell growth). The mismatch of mechanicalproperties of the currently used rigid vascular graft materials (e.g.,ePTFE and Dacron) and elastic native blood vessels contributes toturbulence and repeated damage to the native blood vessel under thecyclical, pulsatile blood flow, and suboptimal blood compatibility ofcurrent vascular graft materials induces thrombosis. Additionally, inhealthy native blood vessels, a single layer of endothelial cells formsan inner lining called the endothelium that can suppress smooth musclecell proliferation or intimal hyperplasia, which is another major causeof vascular graft failures. Another serious complication of vasculargrafts is infection. Current biomaterials generally elicit a cascade ofreactions (foreign body reaction, or FBR) orchestrated by macrophagesthat result in a scar layer that separate the material from the rest ofthe body, creating heavens for bacterial infections.

These complications can be addressed by development of syntheticvascular grafts that have mechanical properties tunable to match thoseof the native blood vessels; sufficient strength to withstand suture; bestable in the body in the long term, and promote complete healing of ahealthy endothelial cell layer on the luminal surface of the syntheticvascular grafts. Even though synthetic graft materials having some ofthese characteristics have been developed, complete healing ofendothelium in synthetic vascular grafts has not been demonstrated todate. Thus, a need exists for a synthetic vascular prosthesis that hasphysical properties matching those of a native blood vessel and at thesame time promotes endothelial healing.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, provided herein is a vascular graft comprising acompliant, elastomeric polymeric graft wall having a luminal surfaceadapted for contact with blood flow, wherein the graft wall hasinterconnected pores throughout the graft wall connecting the outersurface of the graft wall to the luminal surface of the graft wall,wherein each pore of the interconnected pores has a substantiallyuniform pore size, and wherein the pore size is in the range from about25 μm to about 85 μm, and wherein the luminal surface is coated with alayer of endothelial cell growth substrate. In some embodiments, thepore size is in the range from about 30 μm to about 50 μm or about 40μm. In other embodiments, the graft wall allows blood vessel growththrough the wall to the luminal surface.

In some embodiments, the polymeric graft wall comprises a crosslinkedpolyurethane comprising one or more soft segments and one or more hardsegments, wherein the molar ratio of soft segments to hard segments isbetween about 0.1 to about 0.6, between about 0.1 and about 0.4, betweenabout 0.125 and about 0.22, about 0.125, about 0.36, or about 0.22.

In certain embodiments, the layer of endothelial cell growth substratehas thickness of between about 5 μm and about 500 μm. In otherembodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate is biodegradableand/or comprises gelatin, agarose gel, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, oralbumin gel.

In some embodiments, the graft wall further comprises a reinforcementmaterial embedded within the graft wall, for example, a non-degradableknitted or woven polymeric mesh.

In certain embodiments, the graft wall has one or more characteristicsselected from: suture strength from about 0.5 N to about 5.0 N; burstpressure over 1600 mm Hg;

and a Young's Modulus between about 200 kPa and 850 kPa.

In particular embodiments, the graft has a wall thickness substantiallythe same as the wall thickness of a native blood vessel, such as anartery or vein.

In some embodiments, the graft wall is biostable. In certainembodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate is biodegradable andoptionally comprises an anti-thrombogenic agent, such as heparin,disintegrin, hirudin, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the graft is elastic, suturable, kink-resistant,sterilizable, biocompatible, biostable, shelf-stable; has compliancematching with natural blood vessel, has a wall thickness substantiallysimilar to that of a native blood vessel; has low thrombogenicity anddoes not elicit inflammatory response.

In some embodiments, the graft comprises the following elements: apolymeric graft wall having a network of interconnected pores spanningthe graft wall from the outer surface to the luminal surface, whereinall pores are uniform in size and about 40 microns; a compliance(elasticity) similar to the native blood vessel; and a biodegradableluminal surface coating that can assist in the regeneration of anendothelial cell lining.

In a second aspect, provided herein is a method of making a vasculargraft comprising:

(a) coating a cylindrical rod having an outer surface and a first radiuswith a layer of an endothelial cell growth substrate to provide a coatedrod;

(b) positioning the coated rod in the center of a tube having a secondradius greater than the first radius wherein the second radius is theinner radius of the tube;

(c) filling the space between the outer surface of the coated rod andthe inner wall of the tube with a polymer scaffold template comprisingan array of monodisperse porogens, wherein substantially all theporogens have a similar diameter, wherein the mean diameter of theporogens is between about 25 and about 85 micrometers, whereinsubstantially all porogens are each connected to at least 4 otherporogens, and wherein the diameter of substantially all the connectionsbetween the porogens is between about 15% and about 40% of the meandiameter of the porogens;

(d) forming a polymer around the polymer scaffold template;

(e) removing the polymer scaffold template to produce a porous polymericgraft wall, and

(f) removing the rod and the tube, thereby producing the vascular graft.

In a third aspect, provided herein is method for treating vasculardisease, comprising the step of implanting into a mammal in need oftreatment a vascular graft, wherein the vascular graft comprises apolymeric graft wall having a luminal surface, wherein the graft wallhas a plurality of interconnected pores connecting the outer surface ofthe graft with the luminal surface, wherein each pore of theinterconnected pores has a substantially uniform pore size, and whereinthe mean diameter of the pores is between about 25 μm to about 85 μm,and wherein the luminal surface is coated with a layer of endothelialcell growth substrate.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of thisinvention will become more readily appreciated as the same become betterunderstood by reference to the following detailed description, whentaken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1A is a schematic representation of a cross-section of a syntheticpolymeric (ePTFE) vascular graft known in the art (100) showing theinner ePTFE graft wall (100) coated with an adhesive layer (120) whichbonds a layer of microporous polymeric particles (130) to the ePTFEwall.

FIG. 1B is a schematic representation of a cross-section of an exemplaryvascular graft (200) showing porous polymeric graft wall (210) with alayer of endothelial growth substrate coating the luminal surface (230)and polymeric mesh reinforcement (220) incorporated within the graftwall.

FIG. 2A is an image of a cross section of the porous polyurethane graftwith the average pore diameter of 40 μm implanted into a mouse tissuedemonstrating that the graft material promotes blood vessel (black)growth through the graft pores (white).

FIG. 2B is an image of cross section of the porous polyurethane graftwith the average pore diameter of 100 μm implanted into a mouse tissueshowing little to no blood vessel growth through the pores.

FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of the one-step, catalyst-free,solvent-free synthesis of a polyurethane used in the preparation of anexemplary graft resulting in a crosslinked polyurethane polymer havingsoft segments (dotted line) derived from PTMO and hard segments (solidlines) derived from diisocyanate (MDI) and crosslinkers (HTI and TMP).

FIG. 4 demonstrates that the Young's Modulus of the porous material ofthe polymeric graft wall can be fine-tuned to match the Young's Modulusof various native blood vessels by varying the polymer composition,e.g., the ratio of the soft segments to hard segments in the polymer.The dotted line corresponds to the Young's Modulus of the native artery.

FIG. 5A is a SEM image of a cross-section of an exemplary graft (2 mminner diameter) with a porous polyurethane graft wall that does not havea luminal coating layer.

FIG. 5B is an enlarged SEM image of a part of the cross-section shown inFIG. 5A demonstrating the porous structure of the uncoated luminalsurface of the graft (upper right corner).

FIG. 5C is an SEM image of the luminal surface of a gelatin-coated pHEMAporous tube demonstrating that the coating blocks the pores and thus canprevent initial bleed out of the graft.

FIG. 5D is an SEM image of the wall and luminal surface of agelatin-coated microporous pHEMA tube.

FIG. 6A is an SEM image of a polyurethane implant that has a non-poroussection (left) and a microporous section that has interconnecting poresof average diameter 40 uM (right).

FIG. 6B is an SEM image of the material shown in FIG. 6A implanted intoa mouse tissue demonstrating that the porous material mitigated localforeign body response while a collagen scar formed around the non-poroussection (lower left).

FIG. 7 is an illustration of an exemplary vascular graft (length 15 cm,inner diameter 6 mm) for implantation into a sheep model.

FIG. 8 is a SEM image of a cross-section of an exemplary polyurethanegraft that has an embedded polyester reinforcement mesh.

FIG. 9A is a high resolution ESCA spectrum showing peaks correspondingto carbon species of Pellethane 2363-80A material which has not beensubjected to hydrogen peroxide treatment.

FIG. 9B is a high resolution ESCA spectrum showing peaks correspondingto carbon species of Pellethane 2363-80A material which was treated withhydrogen peroxide.

FIG. 9C is a high resolution ESCA spectrum showing peaks correspondingto carbon species of PU4344, an exemplary microporous vascular graftpolyurethane material, which has not been subjected to hydrogen peroxidetreatment.

FIG. 9D is a high resolution ESCA spectrum showing peaks correspondingto carbon species of PU4344, an exemplary microporous vascular graftpolyurethane material, after hydrogen peroxide treatment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the invention provides a vascular graft. As used herein,“vascular graft” or “graft” refers to a flexible tubular structure or apatch that can be coupled directly to native blood vessels. The vasculargraft of the invention comprises a compliant, elastomeric polymericgraft wall having a luminal surface adapted for contact with blood flow,wherein the graft wall has a plurality of interconnected poresthroughout the graft wall reaching from the outer surface of the graftto the luminal surface, wherein each pore of the interconnected poreshas a substantially uniform pore size, and wherein the mean diameter ofthe pores is between about 25 μm to about 85 μm, and the luminal surfaceis coated with a layer of endothelial cell growth substrate.

As used herein, “substantially uniform pore size” means thatsubstantially all pores have a similar diameter within the specifiedrange. Two pores have a “similar diameter” when the difference in thediameters of the two pores is less than about 20% of the largerdiameter. As used herein, “diameter of the pore” is defined as thelongest line segment that can be drawn that connects two points withinthe pore. For example, for a graft with interconnected pores having amean pore diameter of about 40 μm, “substantially uniform pore size”means a pore having a mean diameter that is 40 μm+/−10 μm, 40 μm+/−8 μm,40 μm+/−5 μm, or 40 μm+/−2 μm.

In some embodiments, the polymeric graft wall comprises a polymericmaterial having an array of pores, wherein substantially all the poreshave a similar diameter, wherein the mean diameter of the pores isbetween about 25 μm to about 85 μm, wherein substantially all the poresare each connected to at least 4 other pores, and wherein the diameterof substantially all the connections between the pores is between about15% and about 40% of the mean diameter of the pores. In someembodiments, the mean diameter of the pores is between about betweenabout 25 μm to about 85 μm, between about 30 μm to about 60 μm, betweenabout 30 μm to about 50 μm, or about 40 μm. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B,crosslinked polyurethane material with pores of the mean diameter ofabout 40 μm promotes higher blood vessel growth than material of thesame chemical composition that has pores of the mean diameter of about100 μm.

The pores in the graft wall described herein can have any suitableshape, such as roughly or perfectly spherical. In some embodiments,substantially all the pores are connected to between about 4 to about 12other pores, such as between about 4 to about 7 other pores. In someembodiments, the vascular graft disclosed herein comprises a polymericmaterial described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,318,193, the disclosure of whichis incorporated herein by reference.

In an exemplary embodiment, the polymeric graft wall comprises acrosslinked polyurethane material with precision engineered porousstructure where spherical pores with a diameter of about 40 μm areinterconnected by holes of about 13 μm in diameter, as shown in FIG. 2A.Each pore is interconnected to the neighboring pores by 10-12 holes,which make the whole material highly interconnected. Materials havingsuch structure can elicit a healing and integration reaction from thebody distinctively different from the classic foreign body reaction(FBR) by attracting macrophages to reside in the porous structure andturning them into a pro-healing state which orchestrates healing.(Sussman, Eric M., Michelle C. Halpin, Jeanot Muster, Randall T. Moon,and Buddy D. Ratner. 2014. Porous Implants Modulate Healing and InduceShifts in Local Macrophage Polarization in the Foreign Body Reaction.Annals of Biomedical Engineering 42(7):1508-16.) As a result, a vasculargraft comprising a graft disclosed herein having a wall with theprecision-engineered microporous structure throughout the graft wallfrom the outer surface of the graft to the luminal surface can allowendothelial cells to grow through the vascular graft wall and cover thewhole lumen of the vascular graft. This complete healing can alsoeliminate the defenseless regions in the biomaterial, which is likely toreduce vascular graft infection.

In some embodiments, the polymeric graft wall comprises a polyurethane.In certain embodiments, the polymer of the polymeric graft is apolyurethane. In certain embodiments, the polyurethane is crosslinked.In some embodiments, the crosslinked polyurethane polymer of thevascular graft wall comprises one or more soft segments and one or morehard segments. A “soft segment” is a material inclusion of which into apolymer imparts elasticity to the polymer. A “hard segment” is amaterial that imparts mechanical strength to the polymer.

Suitable soft segments can be derived from a hydroxyl terminatedoligomer or polymer. Exemplary precursors of soft segments includepoly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propyleneoxide), hydroxyl terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), hydroxylterminated poly(isoprene), hydroxyl terminated fluoropolymer, andcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, the soft segment has averageM_(n) between about 200 Da to about 10,000 Da, 200 Da to about 5,000 Da,between about 300 Da to about 5,000 Da, or between about 300 Da and1,000 Da.

Suitable precursors of the soft segments of the polyurethanes disclosedherein include poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO), poly(ethylene oxide),poly(propylene oxide), hydroxyl terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS),hydroxyl terminated poly(isoprene), hydroxyl terminated polyisobutylene,hydroxyl terminated fluoropolymer, hydroxyl terminated polysilane, andcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the soft segment is a polyether. Exemplarypolyethers suitable for the preparation of the polyurethanes used in thepreparation of the vascular grafts include poly(tetramethylene oxide),poly(propylene oxide), and poly(ethylene oxide). In some embodiments,the soft segment derived from is poly(tetramethylene oxide).

In other embodiments, the soft segment is derived from hydroxylterminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).

In some embodiments, hard segments are derived from diisocyanates.Exemplary diisocyanates useful for the preparation of the polymericgraft wall include 2,2′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, 2,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate, 4,4′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, (MDI),toluene diisocyanate (TDI), naphthalene 1,5-diisocyanate (NDI),1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI),4,4′-dicyclohexylmethane diisocyanate (H12MDI), lysine diisocyanate, andcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the polyurethane polymer is crosslinked by one ormore residues of a crosslinker. Suitable crosslinkers include glycerol,1,2,6-hexanetriol, hexane-1,3,5-triol, pentaerythritol (PT), and acombination thereof. In some embodiments, the crosslinker residue actsas a hard segment; typical crosslinkers acting as hard segments include6-[3-(6-isocyanatohexyl)-2,4-dioxo-1,3-diazetidin-1-yl]hexylN-(6-isocyanatohexyl)carbamate (HTI or Desmodur N-3200),1,1,1-tris(hydroxymethyl) propane (TMP), tris(4-isocyanatophenyl)thiophosphate (TI), undecane-1,6,11-triyl triisocyanate (UTI),triphenylmethane-4,4′,4″-triisocyanate (TPTI), and a combinationthereof.

In one exemplary embodiment, the polymeric graft wall is prepared byco-polymerization of poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO), 4,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate,6-[3-(6-isocyanatohexyl)-2,4-dioxo-1,3-diazetidin-1-yl]hexylN-(6-isocyanatohexyl)carbamate, and 1,1,1-tris(hydroxymethyl) propane,as shown schematically in FIG. 3. In the four components used, PTMO isthe soft segment, which gives the material elasticity. MDI is a part ofthe hard segment, which imparts mechanical strength into the material.HTI and TMP are crosslinkers, which hold the material together,preventing it from dissolving upon contact with organic solvents, forexample, during extraction of porogenic template. Crosslinking HTI andTMP are also hard segments. In one exemplary embodiment, the molar ratioof PTMO/MDI/HTI/TMP is 4/3/4/4.

In certain embodiments, elasticity of the of the polymeric material ofthe graft wall, e.g., its Young's Modulus, can be fine-tuned by varyingthe composition of the polymer, for example, by varying the molar ratioof soft segments to hard segments in the polyurethane. The Young'sModulus describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object todeform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis.As the material becomes more and more elastic, the Young's Modulusdecreases. As shown in FIG. 4, materials with a range of Young's Modulusspan from twice of that of the native artery to half of it can beobtained by varying the molar ratio of the soft segments to hardsegments in the polyurethane polymer. Thus, a vascular graft thatclosely matches the elasticity of the blood vessel to be repaired, e.g.,a native artery or a native vein, can be prepared by varying the molarratio of the soft segments to hard segments in the polyurethane polymerof the graft wall. Additionally, if the vascular graft becomes morerigid after implantation, initial elasticity of the vascular graft canbe fine-tuned, e.g., be more elastic than native blood vessels tocompensate this change.

In some embodiments, the molar ratio of soft segments to hard segmentsis between about 0.1 to about 0.6, between about 0.1 and about 0.4,between about 0.125 and about 0.22, about 0.125, about 0.36, or about0.22. At the ratio of 0.36, Young's Modulus matches that of the thoracicaorta (430 kPa); at the ratio of 0.125, the Young's Modulus matches thatof the abdominal aorta (870 kPa); at the ratio between 0.125 and 0.22,the Young's Modulus covers the range from that of the femoral artery(690 kPa) to that of carotid artery (640) kPa. In certain embodiments,the polymeric graft wall has a Young's Modulus of between about 200 kPaand 850 kPa.

The vascular grafts of the invention comprise a layer of endothelialcell growth substrate on the luminal surface of the graft. In someembodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate has thickness ofbetween about 5 μm and about 500 μm. Examples of suitable endothelialcell growth substrates include gelatin, agarose gel, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, albumin gel, and/or combinations thereof. In someembodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate is biodegradable. Insome embodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate biodegrades whenan endothelial cell lining is formed on the luminal surface of theimplanted graft.

The endothelial cell growth substrate, e.g., gelatin, can becrosslinked. In some embodiments, the endothelial cell growth substratecan be covalently attached to the luminal surface of the graft wall, forexample, the endothelial cell growth substrate can be crosslinked to thegraft wall using one or more crosslinking chemistries known in the art.In other embodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate is notcovalently bound to the luminal surface of the graft wall.

In some embodiments, the graft wall of the vascular graft furthercomprises a reinforcement material embedded within the graft wall. Incertain embodiments, the reinforcement material increases the burststrength of the graft, for example, over 1600 mm Hg. Methods formeasurement of burst strength of a vessel are known in the art. In otherembodiments, the polymeric graft wall does not comprise a reinforcementmaterial, for example, when unreinforced polymer has the burst strengthequal to or higher than that of a native blood vessel, e.g., over 1600mm Hg.

In some embodiments, the reinforcement material is a non-degradablepolymeric mesh, such as knitted mesh or woven mesh. Any suitablepolymeric mesh material can be used as the reinforcement material, forexample, polyester or ePTFE. In some embodiments, the graft wall has asuture strength comparable to or higher than that of a native bloodvessel, for example, from about 0.5 N to about 5.0 N.

The grafts disclosed herein offer significant advantages compared to theknown in the art grafts. FIG. 1A depicts an exemplary known in the artgraft (100) comprising an ePTFE wall (110) which is impermeable to cellsto prevent blood leakage from the blood vessel. A layer of adhesive(120) is applied to the outer surface of the wall which allows coatingthe graft with a layer of particles of microporous material (130), suchas STAR material disclosed in WO 2015127254. Even though the microporousmaterial promotes blood vessel growth through the material and minimizesforeign body response, the impermeable to blood vessel growth ePTFE wall(110) does not allow the blood vessels to reach the luminal surface ofthe graft.

The inventors discovered that blood vessel growth through the graft wallis advantageous for endothelium healing and prevention of graft failure.FIG. 1B depicts an exemplary graft of the invention (200) having amicroporous polymeric wall (210) reinforced by polymeric mesh (220)embedded within the wall (210) and having a coating of endothelial cellgrowth substrate (230) on the luminal surface of the graft. Theinterconnected microporous structure of the wall of the vascular graftpromotes endothelial cell-rich blood vessel growth through the graftwall to the luminal surface. The thin endothelial cell growth substratecoating on the luminal surface of the graft offers the followingadvantages: first, it prevents initial bleeding out from the graft whilestill allowing endothelial cells from the outside to reach the luminalsurface; second, it allows the desirable cytokines released by thepro-healing macrophages residing in the graft to diffuse through andattract endothelial cells from blood stream and adjacent vessels; third,it provides a matrix for inclusion of anti-thrombotic agents to addressinitial thrombogenicity of the graft. Additionally, the vascular graftof the invention wall is made of elastic and bio-stable polymer, forexample, a crosslinked polyurethane, which allow dissipation of energyfrom pulsatile blood flow and promotes endothelium survival.

In some embodiments, the graft comprises the following elements: anetwork of interconnected pores spanning the graft wall from the outersurface to the luminal surface, wherein all pores are uniform in sizeand about 40 microns; a compliance (elasticity) similar to the nativeblood vessel; a biodegradable luminal surface that can assist in theregeneration of an endothelial cell lining. These elements aresynergistic to achieve the healing needed for the long-term in vivoperformance of the graft.

In some embodiments, the polymeric graft wall does not comprise animpermeable to blood vessels material layer. In other embodiments, thepolymeric graft wall does not comprise a non-porous layer. In certainembodiments, the uncoated luminal surface of the polymeric graft wall isporous.

In addition to the above-described advantages, the vascular graftsdisclosed herein have low thrombogenicity and are biocompatible. Incertain embodiments, the graft is suturable, sterilizable,kink-resistant, and/or has a long shelf life.

In some embodiments, the endothelial cell growth substrate of thevascular grafts of the invention comprises an anti-thrombogenic agent.The anti-thrombogenic agent can be covalently or non-covalentlyimmobilized within or on the surface of the endothelial growthsubstrate. In other embodiments, the anti-thrombogenic agent is embeddedwithin the endothelial growth substrate and is released from theendothelial growth substrate. Any suitable anti-thrombogenic agent canbe included. Examples of suitable anti-thrombogenic agents includeheparin, disintegrin, hirudin, and combinations thereof. In someembodiments, the anti-thrombogenic agent is a small molecule, such as asmall molecule inhibitor of thrombin.

In a second aspect, provided herein is a method of making a vasculargraft disclosed herein comprising a porous polymeric graft wall and aluminal surface coated with a layer of endothelial cell growthsubstrate, the method comprising:

(a) coating a cylindrical rod having an outer surface and a first radiuswith a layer of an endothelial cell growth substrate to provide a coatedrod;

(b) positioning the coated rod in the center of a tube having a secondradius wherein the second radius is the inner radius of the tube and isgreater than the first radius;

(c) filling the space between the outer surface of the coated rod andthe inner wall of the tube with a polymer scaffold template comprisingan array of monodisperse porogens, wherein substantially all theporogens have a similar diameter, wherein the mean diameter of theporogens is between about 25 micrometers and about 85 micrometers,wherein substantially all porogens are each connected to at least 4other porogens, and wherein the diameter of substantially all theconnections between the porogens is between about 15% and about 40% ofthe mean diameter of the porogens;

(d) forming a polymer around the template;

(e) removing the template to produce a porous polymeric graft wall, and

(f) removing the rod and the tube, thereby forming the vascular graft.

In some embodiments of the method disclosed herein, the rod is a glassrod and the tube is a glass tube. In certain embodiments, the rod iscoated with an endothelial substrate layer that has a thickness ofbetween about 5 μm and about 500 μm.

The template used in the methods of the invention comprises an array ofporogens. As used herein, the term “porogens” refers to any structuresthat can be used to create a template that is removable after thepolymer is formed under conditions that do not destroy the polymer.Exemplary porogens that are suitable for use in the methods of theinvention include, but are not limited to, polymer particles such asPMMA beads and polystyrene beads. The porogens can have any suitableshape that will permit the formation of a porous polymeric material withan array of pores, wherein substantially all the pores have a similardiameter, wherein the mean pore diameter is between about 25 and about85 micrometers, wherein substantially all pores are each connected to atleast 4 other pores, and wherein the diameter of substantially all theconnections between the pores is between about 15% and about 40% of themean diameter of the pores. For example, the porogens can be spherical.

The dimensions of the vascular grafts of the invention, for example,thickness of the graft wall, can be adjusted to match the thickness ofthe native blood vessel. In certain embodiments, the graft has a wallthickness substantially the same as a natural blood vessel. The firstradius and the second radius can be selected in such a way that thedifference between the first radius and the second radius issubstantially the same as the thickness of a native blood vessel. Thus,by varying the first radius and the second radius, grafts having varyingwall thickness can be prepared using the methods described herein.

As used herein, a “native blood vessel” includes an artery and a vein.Examples of native blood vessels suitable for graft application includecoronary arteries, including carotid, aortoiliac, infrainguinal, distalprofunda femoris, distal popliteal, tibial, subclavian, and mesentericarteries. In some embodiments, the vascular grafts disclosed herein havewall thickness of between about 0.12 mm to about 2 mm. In someembodiments, the grafts have an inner diameter between about 0.3 mm andabout 4 cm. Any suitable length graft can be prepared using the methodsdescribed herein. For example, FIG. 7 depicts a graft designed to beimplanted in a sheep model.

In a third aspect, provided herein is a method for treating vasculardisease, comprising the step of implanting into a mammal in need oftreatment a vascular graft, wherein the vascular graft comprises apolymeric graft wall having a luminal surface, wherein the graft wallhas a plurality of interconnected pores, wherein each pore of theinterconnected pores has a substantially uniform pore size, and whereinthe mean diameter of the pores is between about 25 μm to about 85 μm,and the luminal surface is coated with a layer of endothelial cellgrowth substrate.

In some embodiments, the vascular graft comprises a crosslinkedpolyurethane graft wall having a luminal surface, wherein the graft wallhas a plurality of interconnected pores, wherein each pore of theinterconnected pores has a substantially uniform pore size, and whereinthe mean diameter of the pores is between about 30 μm to about 50 μm,and the luminal surface is coated with a layer of endothelial cellgrowth substrate.

In some embodiments, the graft is implanted into a blood vessel, forexample, during coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), peripheralvascular bypass surgery, or carotid bypass surgery. In some embodiments,the mammal in need of treatment is a human. In certain embodiments, thevascular graft is implanted by directly connecting the vascular graft toa native blood vessel, for example, vascular graft is directly connected(e.g., by suturing) at the ends of the graft to the cut edges of anative vessel (“end-to-end”) or to the side of the native vessel(“end-to-side”).

Various embodiments of this invention are described herein, includingthe best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention.Variations, changes, modifications and substitution of equivalents onthose embodiments will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in theart upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilledartisans to employ such variations, changes, modifications andsubstitution of equivalents as appropriate, and the inventors intend forthe invention to be practiced otherwise than specifically describedherein. Those of skill in the art will readily recognize a variety ofnon-critical parameters that could be changed, altered or modified toyield essentially similar results. Accordingly, this invention includesall modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in theclaims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, anycombination of the above-described elements in all possible variationsthereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicatedherein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

While each of the elements of the present invention is described hereinas containing multiple embodiments, it should be understood that, unlessindicated otherwise, each of the embodiments of a given element of thepresent invention is capable of being used with each of the embodimentsof the other elements of the present invention and each such use isintended to form a distinct embodiment of the present invention.

The referenced patents, patent applications, and scientific literaturereferred to herein are hereby incorporated by reference in theirentirety as if each individual publication, patent or patent applicationwere specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated byreference. Any conflict between any reference cited herein and thespecific teachings of this specification shall be resolved in favor ofthe latter. Likewise, any conflict between an art-understood definitionof a word or phrase and a definition of the word or phrase asspecifically taught in this specification shall be resolved in favor ofthe latter.

As can be appreciated from the disclosure above, the present inventionhas a wide variety of applications. The invention is further illustratedby the following examples, which are only illustrative and are notintended to limit the definition and scope of the invention in any way.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Synthetic Procedure for the Preparation of thePorous Polyurethane Material by Polymerization

The polyurethane was synthesized using a mixture of poly (tetramethyleneoxide) (PTMO, Mw=1000), 4,4′-methylene bis(phenyl isocyanate) (MDI),Desmodur N3200 (HTI), and 1,1,1-Tris(hydroxymethyl) propane (TMP)without a catalyst or a solvent. Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) beadswith a broad size distribution were sieved to obtain mono-dispersity.For this experiment, all the PMMA beads were about 40 μm in diameter.The beads were loaded into the space between a 6-mm-diameter glass rodand 8-mm-inner-diameter glass tube which were held concentric by twocustom-made Teflon stages at the ends. The bead-loaded tube was thensonicated for 1 hour to obtain close packing of the beads and thensintered at 175° C. for 20 hours to obtain interconnection between alladjacent beads. The bead cake was taken out of the glass tube andsubmerged in the freshly mixed polyurethane components. The resultingmixture was degassed under vacuum for 5 minutes. After purging withnitrogen, the bead cake and its internal space were filled with thepolyurethane mixture. Then the bead cake was taken out of the mixtureand wrapped with Teflon film, and the reaction mixture in the bead cakewas allowed to polymerize at 55° C. for 48 hr. After the completion ofthe polymerization reaction, the PMMA template was solubilized bydichloromethane (DCM), leaving behind the precision-engineered porousvascular graft. After the vascular graft swelled in DCM and detachedfrom the glass rod, DCM was gradually replaced with acetone, 70%ethanol, followed by deionized water to bring the graft to its originalsize.

Example 2: Procedure for Measurement of Young's Modulus

The vascular graft was cut open longitudinally with a pair of scissorsand punched into a dumbbell shape. The Young's Modulus was determinedusing Instron 5543 instrument at extension rate of 10 mm/min in a waterbath at 37° C. Suture strength was tested with one end of the vasculargraft clamped to the bottom clamp of the Instron and sutured 2 mm fromthe other end with a single 5-0 Prolene suture which was tied to the topclamp. The suture was pulled at the rate of 2 mm/s at 37° C. in a waterbath until its failure. Suture strength is the maximum force generatedthrough the process.

With the inclusion of the reinforcement mesh, the suture strength of anexemplary material PU4344 (PTMO/MDI/HTI/TMP (molar ratio)=4/3/4/4) was4.77±0.36 N, which is higher than the suture strength of native bloodvessel (˜2N). This indicates that the vascular graft has sufficientstrength to be sutured to native blood vessels.

Example 3: Preparation of an Exemplary Graft

A reinforced graft was prepared by a procedure similar to the methoddescribed above in Example 1, except that the glass rod was wrapped witha polyester mesh before mounting on the Teflon stage, allowing thepolyester mesh to be surrounded by the PMMA beads and ultimatelyembedded within the graft wall. To coat the luminal surface withgelatin, a 6-mm-diameter inner glass rod was dip-coated with gelatin.The luminal coating thickness can be controlled by the number of timesof dip-coating. The glass rod was allowed to dry overnight then frozenat −80° C. for half an hour. The vascular graft was fitted onto theglass rod immediately after the coated rod was taken out of the freezer.The vascular graft-fitted glass rod was put into water briefly for thegelatin film to rehydrate and taken out, then heated to 60° C. in avacuum oven allowing the gelatin coating to melt and to infiltrate intothe pore openings on the luminal surface. The vascular graft-fittedglass rod was refrigerated overnight to allow the gelatin to re-gel. Thegelatin film was crosslinked with EDC/NHS chemistry. The vascular graftwas submerged into a mixture of xylene and 70% ethanol to allow it toswell and to detach from the glass rod. The gelatin film remained on theluminal surface of the vascular graft. The solvent was graduallyswitched to 70% ethanol followed by deionized water to recover the graftsize.

Example 4. Implantation of Porous Polyurethane Material into MouseTissue and Staining of the Tissue to Demonstrate that the PolyurethaneMaterial Mitigates FBR

Polyurethane discs (8-mm wide) with a 2-mm wide nonporous stripe in themiddle separating the two sectors of 40 μm and 100 μm porous structureswere implanted in 8-10-week old 028 BALB/cAnNCrl mice (Charles RiverLaboratories) subcutaneously for 3 weeks. The disks were harvested withthe surrounding tissue, fixed in zinc fixative, embedded in paraffin,and sliced into 6 μm sections. Masson's trichrome stain was used toassess FBC. Vascularization was evaluated by immune-enzyme staining witha panendothelial antigen, MECA 32 (BD Pharmingen™, 550563, 1:30).

Example 5: Biostability Testing of the Grafts

In vivo, macrophages constantly try to attack and break down foreignmaterials by releasing peroxide species. Hydrogen peroxide treatment hasbeen shown to accurately mimic long-term degradation behavior ofpolyurethane in vivo. For in vitro biostability test, a small piece ofexemplary non-porous polyurethane (PTMO/MDI/HTI/TMP (molarratio)=4/3/4/4, referred to as PU4344) was submerged in 30% hydrogenperoxide at 37° C. for 24 hours then dried under vacuum. As a control, apiece of the same material was submerged in deionized water at 37° C.for 24 hours then dried under vacuum. Commercially available “biostable”polyurethane Pellethane 2363-80A was dissolved in DMF then precipitatedin methanol. This process was repeated to remove all processing aidesand stabilizers in the material. The Pellethane was then dissolved inDMAc at a concentration of 50 mg/ml. A 50 μL aliquot of the solution waspipetted onto 10-mm microcoverslip and allowed to dry at 55° C. Thisprocess was repeated until the Pellethane film on the coverslip reached12 mg. Two samples of Pellethane film were treated in deionized water orin 30% hydrogen peroxide as described above for PU4344. X-rayPhotoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of the samples were taken on aSurface Science Instruments S-Probe photoelectron spectrometer with amonochromatized Al Kα X-ray source which was operated at 20 mA and 10kV. X-ray analysis area for these acquisitions was approximately 800 mmacross. Pressure in the analytical chamber during spectral acquisitionwas less than 5×10⁻⁹ torr. Pass energy for high resolution spectra was50 eV. Data point spacing was 0.065 eV/step for high resolution spectra.The take-off angle (the angle between the sample normal and the inputaxis of the energy analyzer) was 0°, (0° take-off angle≈100 Å samplingdepth). Service Physics Hawk version 7 data analysis software was usedfor data analysis. The results are summarized in Table 1 and in FIGS.9A-D.

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), also known as ElectronSpectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA), probes the outer 10 nmsurface of material and thus is extremely sensitive to surface change.For these reasons, peroxide treatment followed by examination by ESCAwas chosen to test the biostability in vitro. It can be seen that afterhydrogen peroxide treatment, the C—O composition of Pellethanesignificantly decreases while that of the PU4344 only decreasesmodestly. Both materials show an emerging C═O peak indicating oxidation.The decrease of C—O composition in PU4344 is almost the sample as theincrease of C═O, indicating a conversion from C—O to C═O throughoxidation. However, both carbon and oxygen stay on the surface. On thecontrary, in the hydrogen peroxide-treated Pellethane sample, the lossof C—O is replaced by C—C composition. This may indicate that theoxidation was so severe that chains of the C—O rich soft segment werecleaved and left the surface, leaving behind more C—C rich hardsegments. Overall, this result demonstrates that PU4344 has betterbiostability than Pellethane 2363-80A.

TABLE 1 Composition of different carbon species of control and treatedpolyurethanes. Pellethane 2363-80A PU4344 Carbon species Control H₂O₂treated Control H₂O₂ treated C—C (hydrocarbon) 64.227 76.521 52.45951.769 C—O (ether) 33.713 20.593 44.286 40.884 C═O (carbonyl) 0 0.886 04.11 N—C═O (urethane) 2.057 1.991 3.255 3.238

Example 6: Implantation of Graft into Sheep

The vascular graft was prepared as described above. FIG. 7 shows anexemplary graft designed for implantation in a sheep model. The graft issterilized with 70% ethanol then stored in sterile PBS for two weeks.Endotoxin and cytotoxicity are tested prior to the implantation. Thegraft is implanted into a blood vessel of a sheep following literatureprocedure (Ted R. Kohler and Thomas R. Kirkman. Dialysis access failure:a sheep model of rapid stenosis. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 30:744-51(1999)).

While illustrative embodiments have been illustrated and described, itwill be appreciated that various changes can be made therein withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the invention.

1. A vascular graft comprising a polymeric graft wall having a luminalsurface adapted for contact with blood flow, wherein the graft wall hasinterconnected pores from the outer surface to the luminal surface ofthe graft wall, wherein each pore of the interconnected pores has asubstantially uniform pore size, and wherein the pore size is in therange from about 25 μm to about 85 μm, and wherein the luminal surfaceis coated with a layer of endothelial cell growth substrate.
 2. Thevascular graft of claim 1, wherein the graft wall further comprises areinforcement material embedded within the graft wall.
 3. The vasculargraft of claim 1, wherein the polymeric graft wall comprises acrosslinked polyurethane comprising one or more soft segments and one ormore hard segments.
 4. The vascular graft of claim 3, wherein one ormore soft segments comprises poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO),poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), hydroxyl terminatedpolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), hydroxyl terminated poly(isoprene),hydroxyl terminated polyisobutylene, hydroxyl terminated fluoropolymer,hydroxyl terminated polysilane, or combinations thereof.
 5. The vasculargraft of claim 3, wherein one or more hard segments comprises a residueof a compound selected from the group consisting of 2,2′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate, 2,4′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate,4,4′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, (MDI), toluene diisocyanate (TDI),1,4-phenylene diisocyanate, 1,3-phenylene diisocyanate, m-xylylenediisocyanate, trans-1,4-cyclohexylene diisocyanate, naphthalene1,5-diisocyanate (NDI), 1,4-diisocyanatobutane, 1,6-hexamethylenediisocyanate (HDI), 1,8-diisocyanatooctane, isophorone diisocyanate(IPDI), 4,4′-dicyclohexylmethane diisocyanate (H12MDI),4,5-dibromobenzene-1,2-diol, 5-nitro-m-xylene-α,α′-diol,2-nitro-2-phenyl-propane-1,3-diol, trans-2,3-dibromo-2-butene-1,4-diol,and combinations thereof.
 6. The vascular graft of claim 3, wherein thecrosslinked polyurethane comprises one or more residues of a crosslinkerselected from6-[3-(6-isocyanatohexyl)-2,4-dioxo-1,3-diazetidin-1-yl]hexylN-(6-isocyanatohexyl)carbamate (HTI), 1,1,1-tris(hydroxymethyl) propane(TMP), tris(hydroxymethyl)nitromethane, tris(4-isocyanatophenyl)thiophosphate (TI), undecane-1,6,11-triyl triisocyanate (UTI),triphenylmethane-4,4′,4″-triisocyanate (TPTI), glycerol,1,2,6-hexanetriol, hexane-1,3,5-triol, pentaerythritol (PT), and acombination thereof.
 7. The vascular graft of claim 3, wherein thepolyurethane is prepared by co-polymerization of poly(tetramethyleneoxide), 4,4′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate,6-[3-(6-isocyanatohexyl)-2,4-dioxo-1,3-diazetidin-1-yl]hexyl-N-(6-isocyanatohexyl)carbamate,and 1,1,1-tris(hydroxymethyl) propane.
 8. The vascular graft of claim 3,wherein the molar ratio of soft segments to hard segments is betweenabout 0.1 to about 0.6, between about 0.1 and about 0.4, between about0.125 and about 0.22, about 0.125, about 0.36, or about 0.22.
 9. Thevascular graft of claim 1, wherein pore size is in the range from about30 μm to about 50 μm.
 10. The vascular graft of claim 1, wherein thelayer of endothelial cell growth substrate has thickness of betweenabout 5 μm and about 500 μm.
 11. The vascular graft of claim 1, whereinthe endothelial cell growth substrate comprises gelatin, agarose gel,hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or albumin gel.
 12. The vascular graft ofclaim 1, wherein the endothelial growth substrate comprises ananti-thrombogenic agent.
 13. The vascular graft of claim 2, wherein thereinforcement material is a non-degradable polymeric mesh.
 14. Thevascular graft of claim 13, wherein the non-degradable polymeric mesh isknitted mesh or woven mesh.
 15. The vascular graft of claim 2, whereinthe reinforcement material comprises polyester or ePTFE.
 16. Thevascular graft of claim 1, wherein the graft wall has suture strengthfrom about 0.5 N to about 5.0 N.
 17. The vascular graft of claim 1,wherein the graft wall has a burst pressure over 1600 mm Hg.
 18. Thevascular graft of claim 3, wherein the polyurethane has a Young'sModulus between about 200 kPa and 850 kPa.
 19. A method for treatingvascular disease, comprising implanting into a mammal in need oftreatment a vascular graft of claim
 1. 20. A method of making a vasculargraft comprising: (a) coating a cylindrical rod having an outer surfaceand a first radius with a layer of an endothelial cell growth substrateto provide a coated rod; (b) positioning the coated rod in the center ofa tube having a second radius greater than the first radius wherein thesecond radius is the inner radius of the tube; (c) filling the spacebetween the outer surface of the coated rod and the inner wall of thetube with a polymer scaffold template comprising an array ofmonodisperse porogens, wherein substantially all the porogens have asimilar diameter, wherein the mean diameter of the porogens is betweenabout 25 and about 85 micrometers, wherein substantially all porogensare each connected to at least 4 other porogens, and wherein thediameter of substantially all the connections between the porogens isbetween about 15% and about 40% of the mean diameter of the porogens;(d) forming a polymer around the polymer scaffold template; (e) removingthe polymer scaffold template to produce a porous polymeric graft wall,and (f) removing the rod and the tube, thereby producing the vasculargraft.